A Companion to the History of Science	3
	Contents	7
	About the Editor	10
	About the Contributors	11
	Acknowledgements	18
	Introduction	19
	Endnote	24
	References	24
	1 Historiography of the History of Science	25
	Constructing Scientific Knowledge, Socially	26
	Doing Scientific Things with Scientific Things: Practice and Materiality	28
	Moving Knowledge Around: Communication and Circulation	30
	Scaling History of Science	34
	Endnote	35
	References	35
	PART I Roles	41
	2 Learned Man and Woman in Antiquity and the Middle Ages	43
	Greek Mathematicians in the Hellenic Cities	45
	Families of Scholars in Persian and Hellenistic Uruk	46
	Scholars as Clients in Warring States to Early Han China	47
	A Roman Physician and a Roman Mathematician	48
	Contexts of Scholarship in Sanskrit Sciences	49
	Translators and Other Scholars in Abbasid Baghdad	50
	Mandarins and Calendar Reform	51
	Salaried Scholars in Damascus	51
	Scholarly Women in the Ancient and Medieval Periods	53
	Conclusion	54
	References	54
	3 Go-Betweens, Travelers, and Cultural Translators	57
	Connecting Cultures in Recent Historiography	58
	Travel and Translation	61
	Brokering in the Cultural and Social Sciences	61
	Go-Betweens Enter Science Studies	63
	An Example	64
	Whither Go-Betweens Today?	69
	Endnote	70
	References	71
	4 The Alchemist	76
	Endnotes	85
	References	86
	5 The Natural Philosopher	89
	The Natural Philosopher in the University	89
	Experimenters	92
	Ideal Types and Natural Philosophers	92
	Role: Public or Private?	93
	Societies and Experiment	95
	Natural Philosophy and Natural History	98
	Endnote	99
	References	99
	6 The Natural Historian	102
	The Early Modern Naturalist	104
	The Enlightenment Naturalist	106
	The Nineteenth-Century Naturalist	107
	The Modern Naturalist	109
	References	111
	7 Invisible Technicians, Instrument-makers and Artisans	115
	Instrumental Knowledge	117
	Behind the Scenes	120
	Assembly-line Knowledge	124
	Conclusions	126
	References	127
	8 Scientific Illustrators	129
	Debates between Darwin and Illustrators of his Books	129
	Early Stages	131
	The Illustrator as an Interpreter of Nature	131
	The System of Conventions in the Illustrators Profession	133
	The Illustrator and the Economy of Scientific Books	134
	The Industry of Illustrated Scientific Books	136
	Women Illustrators	138
	Construction of a Visual Scientific Culture	139
	The Photography Revolution	140
	Endnotes	142
	References	142
	9 The Human Experimental Subject	144
	Prisoners	145
	Slaves	147
	Patients	148
	Children	152
	Self-experiment	154
	Conclusion	155
	References	155
	10 Amateurs	157
	Defining Modern Science: The Amateur as Foil	157
	Defining Modern Science: The Amateur as Proto-Professional	158
	Defining Modern Science: The Amateur as the Professionals Inverse	160
	Re-mapping the Amateur Sphere: Historiographic Challenges to the Standard Narrative	160
	Challenges Posed by the History of Women in Science	161
	Challenges Posed by the History of Natural History	163
	Challenges Posed by the New Cultural History	163
	Appropriating Scientific Authority from within Amateur Realms: Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Ecologies of Knowledge	164
	History of Sciences Amateurs: The Question of Where the Center Lies	167
	References	168
	11 The Man of Science	171
	References	179
	12 The Professional Scientist	182
	A Middling Sort of Science	184
	Supporting and Subverting their Sponsors	186
	Professionals Unbound	188
	End of an Epoch?	190
	References	191
	PART II Places and Spaces	197
	13 The Medieval University	199
	Pre-university Education	200
	Universities and Scholastic Culture	201
	New Directions	207
	Endnote	210
	References	210
	14 The Observatory	214
	Early Observatories	214
	China	215
	The Islamic World	215
	Tycho Brahe	217
	The Seventeenth Century	217
	The Eighteenth Century	219
	Giant Reflectors	220
	The First Half of the Nineteenth Century	220
	Magnetism	221
	The Observatory as Laboratory	222
	The Rise of American Observatories	223
	Space Observatories	225
	Endnote	225
	References	225
	15 The Court	228
	Engineering, Instruments, and Practical Mathematics	229
	Cosmology and Philosophical Speculation	231
	“New Things” and the Medici	232
	Collections, Wonder, and the Order of Nature	233
	Curiosities and Visual Knowledge	235
	Gender, “Human Empire,” and Global Knowledge	236
	Medicine, Pharmacy, and Society	238
	References	239
	16 Academies and Societies	242
	New Philosophies and New Forums	243
	Enlightened Sociability and the Growth of Civil Society	245
	High and Low Science	247
	Conclusion	252
	Endnote	253
	References	253
	17 Museums and Botanical Gardens	256
	Renaissance and Early Modern Collections	256
	Museums, Gardens, and the Modern State	259
	Science, Education, and Popular Culture	262
	Conclusion: the hybrid spaces of popular science	266
	References	268
	18 Domestic Space	270
	Situating the Domestic Production of Scientific Knowledge	270
	Gender and Domestic Productions	271
	Domesticity, Social Class, and Professionalization	273
	Domesticity by Design	276
	Domestication through Popularization	277
	Future Research	280
	References	280
	19 Commercial Science	286
	Science in Twentieth-Century Corporate Laboratories	287
	Science in Nineteenth-Century Capitalist Enterprises	290
	Conclusion	295
	Endnotes	296
	References	297
	20 The Field	300
	The Field as Category and Place	301
	Many Fields	304
	Places and Practices	306
	Practitioners	307
	Conclusion	308
	References	308
	21 The Laboratory	314
	A Brief History of the Laboratory	314
	Lab Studies as a Field: Past, Present, and Future	320
	The Laboratory at the Intersection: Practice, Pedagogy, and Material Culture	321
	Endnotes	323
	References	324
	22 Modern School and University	328
	Early Modern Universities and Schools	329
	The Enlightenment and Compulsory School Education	332
	The Research University Revolution	334
	University Expansion and Technoscientific Innovation	337
	Endnote	343
	References	343
	PART III Communication	347
	23 Manuscripts	349
	Transmission of Texts	349
	Textual Criticism	353
	Visual Images	355
	Tradition and Innovation	357
	Endnotes	360
	References	360
	24 The Printing Press	362
	De-centering Gutenberg from the Print Revolution	362
	From Book to Text and Back Again	365
	Locating the Scientific Book	366
	Facsimiles and Digitization	370
	The World of Print	371
	Endnotes	372
	References	373
	25 Correspondence Networks	376
	The Republic of Letters, Sixteenth–Eighteenth Centuries	378
	Exchanging Information, Opinions, and Objects	380
	Scientific Correspondence in the Nineteenth Century	381
	Europe and the Wider World	382
	The Universal Postal Union and Beyond	384
	Corpora of Correspondence, Archival and Published	385
	Digital Humanities and the Future of Research on Correspondence Networks	385
	References	386
	26 Translations	390
	The First Turn: Modern Histories of “Arabic Science” in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries	390
	The Second Turn: Antique to Early Modern Encounters with Translation in East Asia and Beyond	397
	Concluding Remarks	401
	References	401
	27 Journals and Periodicals	405
	The Seventeenth Century	406
	The Eighteenth Century	406
	The Nineteenth Century	407
	The Twentieth Century	409
	Scientific Authorship	411
	Editors and Reviewing Processes	412
	Distribution and Readership	413
	Conclusions	414
	Endnote	415
	References	415
	28 Textbooks	418
	Expectations	419
	Past Tenses	420
	Demarcation	421
	Disciplines	423
	Futures	426
	Endnote	428
	References	428
	29 Lectures	432
	Visualizing Science	434
	Voicing Science	436
	Body Language	437
	Auditors and Auditoriums	439
	Legacies	442
	Endnote	443
	References	443
	30 Film, Radio, and Television	446
	Film: Science on the Silver Screen	446
	Radio: Broadcasting Science over the Airwaves	450
	Television: Science in Every Living Room	453
	References	458
	PART IV Tools of Science	461
	31 Timing Devices	463
	Endnotes	473
	References	474
	32 Weights and Measures	477
	Historiography on Weights and Measures	477
	Measurement: Politics and Economy	478
	Decimal Metric System	480
	Globalization of the Metric System	482
	Social Forces of Metrication	482
	The Metric System and Its Adversaries	484
	Moral Economy of Measurement and Opposition to Metrological Reform	486
	Concluding Remark	487
	Endnote	487
	References	487
	33 Calculating Devices and Computers	490
	Calculation “By Hand”	491
	Analog Computing	493
	Electronic Computing, Numerical Analysis, and Simulation	494
	Beyond Artillery, Bombs, and Particles	495
	Big Data Avant Big Data	497
	Data Infrastructures	498
	The Social Organization of Expertise	499
	Hubris and Materiality	500
	Endnotes	501
	References	502
	34 Specimens and Collections	506
	Defending Collections	506
	Making Collections Scientific	507
	Modernizing Collections in the Twentieth Century	510
	Conclusions	513
	Guide to Further Readings	514
	References	515
	35 Recording Devices	518
	Spontaneous Reproduction	519
	Expanding and Replacing	520
	In Philosophy of Science	521
	The Disappearing Device	522
	From Media Studies to Poststructuralism	523
	Desires	524
	Recording and Quantification	525
	Servant instruments	525
	The Personal Equation	526
	The Modern Subject and the Discipline of Psychology	527
	Art and Hand-drawings	527
	Altered Distances	529
	Recorded History	529
	References	530
	36 Microscopes	533
	Origins	533
	Hooke and After	535
	The Development of the Instrument Trade	537
	The Microscope in the Nineteenth Century	541
	Modern Microscopy	545
	References	546
	37 Telescopes	548
	The Early Refractor	549
	The Beginning of the Reflector	552
	Telescopes in Observatories	553
	New Telescopes and Audiences in the Eighteenth Century	555
	The Large Reflector: William Herschel and His Successors	556
	The Essential Tool of Modern Astronomy	558
	References	560
	38 Prisms, Spectroscopes, Spectrographs, and Gratings	561
	The Prism—From a Toy to a Tool	561
	Dark Lines in the Solar Spectrum: Wollaston and Fraunhofer	562
	The Emergence of Spectrum Analysis: Swan, Bunsen, and Kirchhoff	564
	Multifacetted Applications of Spectroscopy	566
	Solar Physics and Chemistry: The Origins of Astrophysics	567
	Diffraction Gratings and Precision Spectroscopy	570
	Endnotes	572
	References	573
	39 Diagrams	575
	Theoretical Approaches	575
	Diagrams in the History of Science	577
	Paper Tools	579
	Maps	580
	Tables	581
	Graphs	583
	Conclusion	585
	Endnotes	585
	References	586
	40 Three-Dimensional Models	590
	Introduction	590
	Models in Research	591
	Models as Representations	594
	Models and their Audiences	596
	Models Mass-produced for Teaching	597
	Modeling Nature	599
	Guide to Further Reading and Further Viewing	600
	Endnotes	601
	References	602
	Index	605
	EULA	620